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The Dual Alliance of 1879 was formed after the breakdown of the earlier Three Emperors’ League (1873 - a treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia that aimed to preserve the status quo in eastern Europe). Tensions had grown in 1878 when Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. The resulting Treaty of San Stefano had given Russia major influence in the Balkans, which angered Austria-Hungary. In response, Germany had stepped in to organise the Treaty of Berlin, which reversed key parts of the San Stefano agreement. This intervention pleased Austria-Hungary but frustrated Russia, causing the Three Emperors’ League to collapse. In its place, Germany and Austria-Hungary signed the Dual Alliance. The reasons behind the Dual Alliance were strongly shaped by the strategic concerns of both countries. For Germany, Chancellor Bismarck was worried that Germany could be left isolated in Europe now that the League had collapsed. He also feared a French attack, especially since France still wanted revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). A particular danger was that France might ally with Russia, leaving Germany facing a war on two fronts. Austria-Hungary had different concerns: Emperor Franz Joseph feared Russia’s growing role in the Balkans and the rise of Slavic nationalism, which looked to Russia for support. Without Russia as an ally, he needed protection. The alliance offered mutual benefit: both Germany and Austria-Hungary gained protection from Russia. At the same time, Germany secured its southern frontier, while Austria-Hungary gained support against internal unrest and separatism. The Dual Alliance was defensive. If Russia attacked one country, the other would help; if attacked by another power, each would stay neutral. The alliance was originally kept secret to avoid provoking tensions, but over time its existence became known. In 1882, the alliance expanded. Italy had recently lost Tunisia to France (1881). As a result, Italy now looked for allies to strengthen its position ... leading it to join the Dual Alliance, forming the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Each member gained from this expansion. Germany strengthened its position by isolating France further and building a powerful central European bloc. Austria-Hungary gained more security in southern Europe. Italy gained diplomatic support for its colonial ambitions and was treated as a major European power. The Triple Alliance remained a defensive pact: if any member was attacked by two or more countries, the others would help. However, it was never as strong as it looked. Italy was militarily unreliable: in 1902, it secretly agreed with France to stay neutral if war broke out, and when war did come in 1914, Italy refused to support Germany. There were also disagreements within the alliance: Italy and Austria-Hungary clashed over border areas in the Alps, and Austria-Hungary disliked Italy having influence in Balkan affairs. The consequences of the Triple Alliance were serious. It increased tension in Europe, especially with France and Russia, who now felt more vulnerable. Suspicion grew on both sides, leading to greater hostility. In response, France and Russia grew closer together and signed a Franco-Russian alliance in 1894. This created two rival alliance systems and made a general war more likely. Even though both the Dual and Triple Alliance were defensive in theory, they reflected a wider shift in Europe: countries were relying on military alliances rather than diplomacy to resolve their disputes. Meanwhile, in the Balkans, Austria-Hungary became bolder, knowing it had German support. It occupied Bosnia in 1879–80. Another crisis in 1887 saw France and Russia cooperating to offer financial support to Bulgaria—showing how both sides were beginning to act like wartime allies. In 1914, Germany gave Austria-Hungary a so-called ‘blank cheque’ to deal with Serbia, showing how the logic of alliance had tipped Europe into war. What began as a protective agreement had helped to divide Europe into hostile camps, create long-term mistrust, and pave the road to World War One.
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