The Local Context
By 1963, US was already v involved in Vietnam, even though full war only declared in 1964.
• French defeat → power vacuum.
• 1959: Ho declared ‘People’s War’.
• Diem = unpopular, ARVN = losing to Viet Cong.
US involvement, 1945–63
• Truman
◦ 1945: OSS parachuted in (Operation EMBANKMENT) → rescued US POWs & protected US interests.
◦ 1947: Ha Long Bay Agreement → US formally backed French + gives $3b aid.
◦ 1952: US backed ‘Navarre Plan’.
• Eisenhower
◦ 1954: US Army suggested nukes at Dien Bien Phu.
◦ 1954: joinedGeneva talks.
◦ 1954: backed Diem as South Vietnam’s President.
◦ 1954:
sent Saigon MILITARY MISSION (1000 advisers) to train ARVN.
◦ 1954: Operation Passage to Freedom.
◦ 1957: funded $17.5m loan for sanitation as part of 5-Year Plan.
• Kennedy
◦ 1961:
spent $270m backing Diem (mainly ARVN).
◦ 1961: NSAM52 Memorandum = secret military, political, economic support to Diem to block Communist win.
◦ 1961: signals unit + 32 helicopters + 400 crew.
◦ 1962:
sent Navy SEALs + 8th Field Hospital.
◦ 1962: funded Strategic Hamlets.
◦ 1962: started Agent Orange spraying (Operation Ranch Hand).
◦ 1963: 16k US military in South Vietnam.
◦ 1963: backed coup to remove Diem.
The International Context
Anti-Communism:
• US saw itself as leader of ‘FREE WORLD’ → must stop Communism.
• McCarthy witch-hunts showed intensity.
• 1961: Kennedy pledged to ‘get tough’ on Communism → 16k troops sent (though only to support ARVN).
Cold War:
• Post-1945 = worldwide COLD WAR US-vs-USSR tension
◦ nb Nuclear threats during Berlin Blockade, Korean War, Cuban Crisis.
• 1949: Communist China = US setback.
• China + USSR support for Ho Chi Minh → US had to back South Vietnam.
STRATEGIC value:
• US bases in region (e.g. Japan, Korea, Guam) = vital to defence.
• Loss in Vietnam = allies may doubt US protection + USSR/China may push further.
• SE Asia = resource-rich + vital sea lanes.
US Policy shifts:
• 1947: Truman Doctrine = CONTAINMENT of communism = $$ + arms to stop Communism spreading.
• 1954: SEATO = anti-Communist alliance.
• Korean War → Eisenhower’s ‘DOMINO Theory’.
• 1950: NSC-68: suggested ROLLBACK of Communism → secret CIA actions.
• → All reinforced US resolve to stop Ho unifying Vietnam under Communism.
Military-Industrial Complex:
• US arms firms wanted war.
• Military budget: $53b (1964) → $85 billion (1969).
• Firms like Boeing, Lockheed made huge profits.
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 7 Aug 1964
1964: Johnson wanted US to enter war:
• Claimed: "If you let a bully in the garden, he’ll be on the porch next, then rape your wife".
• July: US helps ARVN raid North Vietnamese radar sites.
• 2 Aug: USS MADDOX fired on North Vietnamese boats.
• 3–4 Aug: Maddox sailors panicked (thought they were attacked again).
• Privately, Johnson doubted attack: “dumb stupid sailors shooting at flying fish” – but publicly told Congress North Vietnamese had attacked.
7 Aug: Congress gives him power to escalate.
• 'AMERICANISATION' begins (= US takes lead in war).
• 'Vietnamisation' (= only helping SV), which was US policy pre-1964 & post-1969.
Escalation
Once in, US had to keep committing to avoid defeat
• ESCALATION ∵ Losing → more commitment ∵ backing out = humiliation.
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