Diem’s Govt: Policies, Repression & Corruption
Political Structure and Leadership
• 1955–63: Diem (Catholic) ruled S. Vietnam as dictator.
• Power concentrated in family – esp. brother Nhu (ran ARVN, secret police, death squads).
• 1954: Nhu formed CAN LAO Party – only pro-Diem, upper/mid-class Catholics allowed.
• Govt favoured rich Catholics – Buddhists (majority) excluded from land, jobs, power.
• 1955 election rigged and ignored 1956 Geneva-mandated whole-country elections.
Repressive Measures
• Targeted enemies (Communists, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, Binh Xuyen) – sent to ‘re-ed.’ camps.
• May 1959: LAW 10/59 = death/jail for anyone linked to left-wing groups – 12k+ killed.
• Extreme censorship:
◦ Only govt-run radio & press; 1956 law banned any ‘subversive’ content.
◦ 1961: Dept of Civic Action = ⅓ of radio time = propaganda.
• US helped build Diem’s control:
◦ 1961: $270m from US – mostly for ARVN – plus 32 helicopters + crew;
National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM52) authorised secret military, economic & intelligence support.
◦ 1962: Navy SEALS & medics; US planes began spraying Agent Orange.
◦ By 1963: 16k+ US personnel in Vietnam.
Economic Policies
• 1957: Five Year plan – tax cuts, rent deals, subsidies to attract foreign investors.
• Rice output ↑ from 70k → 340k tons (1955–60).
• But no land reform – land given to Diem’s Catholic allies/ poor farmers taxed or forced into unpaid labour.
Strategic Hamlets Program
• Started 1959 as ‘AGROVILLES’; renamed ‘Strategic Hamlets’ & US-backed from 1962.
• Aim: isolate villagers from Vietcong by moving them into fortified hamlets.
• By 1963, ⅔ of population relocated – often by force.
• Problems:
◦ Lacked land/jobs/services.
◦ Locals had to build own homes despite promised aid.
◦ Broke up families, abandoned temples/graves.
◦ Corruption – US funds stolen by officials incl. Diem’s family.
◦ Turned people against govt → more VC support.
People’s Lives
Urban vs. Rural Disparities
• Urban elite (Saigon) = wealthy, French-speaking, lived luxuriously.
• 80% lived rurally – v. poor.
• 1959–62: floods + VC attacks → food shortages incl. rice, meat, veg.
Public Health & Social Infrastructure
• Housing/factory conditions v. poor for working class.
• Water & sanitation = inadequate despite $17.5m US loan.
• 1958: malaria eradication program failed – VC disrupted DDT spraying (rightly claimed it poisoned environment).
• Disease & parasites widespread – death rate = 2× US rate.
Women’s Rights & Roles
• 1959 FAMILY CODE (by Mme Nhu) = legal equality, banned polygamy, but made divorce hard.
• Women active:
◦ Mme But Tra = top newspaper editor.
◦ 10 women in National Assembly.
◦ Women’s Solidarity Movement (1958) formed to support regime.
• 1962: strict MORAL LAWS banned boxing, cabarets, alcohol for children, beauty contests, birth control.
Youth Engagement & Education
• CONG HOA Youth Movement = 1.3m members – did manual work + ‘security’.
• Schooling expanded:
◦ Secondary pupils ×3 (1955–62)/ 3 unis built w. 12k students by 1962.
◦ Primary schools taught civics/history; overcrowded – kids taught in shifts.
• 20 tech colleges taught trades (eg carpentry, ironwork) – academic subjects discouraged.
Work & Welfare
• 1956 Constitution: right to join unions – CVTC, the Buddhist-led rice-farmer union, had 500k members.
• 1952 LABOUR CODE = sick pay, redundancy rights – but not enforced.
• Post-1954: govt ran welfare (no unemployment/pensions though).
Refugee Crisis
• 1954–55: 1m fled N. Vietnam under US-backed Operation PASSAGE TO FREEDOM.
• 1954–63: 1m more fled VC/conflict zones.
• ∴ ⅛ of pop. = refugees → overcrowding, shortages, tension.
Growth of Opposition (1954–63): the Vietcong
Origins & Development
• Diem = hated for corruption, violence & Catholic bias (banned Buddhist symbols → mass protests).
• 1954: Viet Minh had left 2,500 fighters + weapons hidden in S. Vietnam.
• By 1958: ‘Viet Cong’ (name = Diem insult) = 9k troops; by 1960 – battalion-size attacks; by 1962 – 25k fighters.
• 1959: Ho Chi Minh ordered ‘PEOPLE’S WAR’ – 8k S. officials killed by 1961.
• 1960: Ho set up NLF (broad patriotic movement incl. professionals, peasants, Communists).
• Local peasants fed & protected VC.
Military Activities of the Vietcong, 1959–63
• Outnumbered (ARVN = 170k vs 10k VC in 1961), but effective guerrilla tactics:
◦ Attacked govt OFFICIALS 500+ killed, 1k kidnapped, Jan–Jun 1961.
◦ Sabotage: 284 bridges blown up (1960); railways wrecked, destroyed schools, clinics (400 schools shut),
◦ Ambushed food convoys, looted hospitals & power supplies.
The Fall of Diem
Buddhist Crisis, 1963
• In May 1963, govt forces killed 9 Buddhists (inc. children) in Hue for flying religious flags for Buddha’s birthday.
• When 10,000 Buddhists protested, govt arrested 1,000s of leaders.
Thich Quang Duc’s Protest
• On 11 June 1963, monk THICH QUANG DUC set himself on fire in Saigon to protest religious persecution.
• Photo shocked world opinion but Madame Nhu mocked: “If the Buddhists want another barbecue…”.
US Turns Against Diem
• US had supported Diem with money, training & advisers.
• As he ignored criticism & violence grew, Kennedy publicly criticised him (2 Sept).
• CIA began secretly backing coup plans by ARVN generals, led by DUONG VAN MINH.
Coup and Assassination
• On 1 Nov 1963, generals overthrew Diem.
• Diem phoned US embassy for help—refused.
• On 2 Nov 1963, both were captured and killed by ARVN soldiers.
Interpretations (Geoffrey Shaw)
• Diem ≠ corrupt: devout Catholic trying to improve Vietnam.
• Diem ≠ incompetent: faced strong Communist insurgency from start.
• Diem ≠ tyrant: strict rule was wartime necessity.
• Diem ≠ cause of unrest: Communist resistance already well organised before his rule.
• US smeared Diem to excuse abandoning him during war.
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